Sex-specific differences in the experience of adverse childhood experiences: transmission, protective, and risk factors from the perspectives of parents and their children-results of an 18-year German longitudinal study

Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2025 Apr 26;19(1):46. doi: 10.1186/s13034-025-00904-6.

ABSTRACT

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are strongly associated with mental and physical health problems across the lifespan, emphasizing the critical need for prevention. Sex-specific differences in both the prevalence and long-term consequences of ACEs have rarely been analyzed, especially in longitudinal studies, which are particularly needed.

OBJECTIVE: This longitudinal study explores risk and protective factors as well as the intergenerational transmission of ACEs from parents to children, with a focus on sex-specific effects.

METHODS: Data from 316 families participating in the 18-year German longitudinal project “Future Family” were analysed. The dataset included information from mothers (54 years), fathers (57 years), and their emerging adults (22 years).

RESULTS: Daughters and mothers reported significantly more ACEs than fathers and sons, particularly in the categories of abuse and neglect. Experiencing four or more ACEs was associated with higher levels of psychological distress and lower life satisfaction for both parents and children. Approximately half of the emerging adults experienced a similar number of ACEs as their parents; however, the types of ACEs often differed, with children encountering distinct ACEs. Protective factors, such as higher maternal socio-economic status, maternal participation in the Positive Parenting Program (Triple P), and fewer internalizing problems in early childhood, were associated with a reduced number of ACEs in children by the age of 18.

CONCLUSION: Although women report higher rates of ACEs, men are not less affected in terms of psychological distress. Sex-specific considerations appear to be crucial in the prevention of ACEs and should be integrated into targeted strategies. Our findings highlight the importance of considering both parents’ perspectives in developing and implementing effective preventive interventions in families.

PMID:40287696 | DOI:10.1186/s13034-025-00904-6